A manager is someone skilled in knowing how to analyze and improve the ability of an organization to survive and grow in a complex and changing world. This means that managers have a set of tools that enable them to grasp the complexity of the organization's environment.
A management system describes the organization and the set of significant interacting institutions and forces in the organization's complex and rapidly changing environment that affect its ability to serve its customers. The firm must continuously monitor and adapt to the environment if it is to survive and prosper. Disturbances in the environment may spell profound threats or new opportunities for the firm. The successful firm will identify, appraise, and respond to the various opportunities and threats in its environment.
Managers create and maintain an internal environment, commonly called the organization, so that others can work efficiently in it. A manager's job consists of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling the resources of the organization. These resources include people, jobs or positions, technology, facilities and equipment, materials and supplies, information, and money. Managers work in a dynamic environment and must anticipate and adapt to challenges.
The job of every manager involves what is known as the functions of management: planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. These functions are goal-directed, interrelated and interdependent.
· Planning involves devising a systematic process for attaining the goals of the organization. It prepares the organization for the future.
· Organizing involves arranging the necessary resources to carry out the plan. It is the process of creating structure, establishing relationships, and allocating resources to accomplish the goals of the organization.
· Directing involves the guiding, leading, and overseeing of employees to achieve organizational goals.
· Controlling involves verifying that actual performance matches the plan. If performance results do not match the plan, corrective action is taken.
To meet the many demands of performing their functions, managers assume multiple roles. A role is an organized set of behaviors. Henry Mintzberg has identified ten roles common to the work of all managers. The ten roles are divided into three groups: interpersonal, informational, and decisional.
· The informational roles link all managerial work together.
· The interpersonal roles ensure that information is provided.
· The decisional roles make significant use of the information.

The performance of managerial roles and the requirements of these roles can be played at different times by the same manager and to different degrees depending on the level and function of management. The ten roles are described individually, but they form an integrated whole.
The three interpersonal roles are primarily concerned with interpersonal relationships.
· In the figurehead role, the manager represents the organization in all matters of formality. The top level manager represents the company legally and socially to those outside of the organization. The supervisor represents the work group to higher management and higher management to the work group.
· In the liaison role, the manger interacts with peers and people outside the organization. The top level manager uses the liaison role to gain favors and information, while the supervisor uses it to maintain the routine flow of work.
· The leader role defines the relationships between the manger and employees.
The direct relationships with people in the interpersonal roles place the manager in a unique position to get information. Thus, the three informational roles are primarily concerned with the information aspects of managerial work.
· In the monitor role, the manager receives and collects information.
· In the role of disseminator, the manager transmits special information into the organization. The top level manager receives and transmits more information from people outside the organization than the supervisor.
· In the role of spokesperson, the manager disseminates the organization's information into its environment. Thus, the top level manager is seen as an industry expert, while the supervisor is seen as a unit or departmental expert.
The unique access to information places the manager at the center of organizational decision making. There are four decisional roles.
· In the entrepreneur role, the manager initiates change.
· In the disturbance handler role, the manger deals with threats to the organization.
· In the resource allocator role, the manager chooses where the organization will expend its efforts.
· In the negotiator role, the manager negotiates on behalf of the organization. The top level manager makes the decisions about the organization as a whole, while the supervisor makes decisions about his or her particular work unit.
The supervisor performs these managerial roles but with different emphasis than higher managers. Supervisory management is more focused and short-term in outlook. Thus, the figurehead role becomes less significant and the disturbance handler and negotiator roles increase in importance for the supervisor. Since leadership permeates all activities, the leader role is among the most important of all roles at all levels of management.
In order to perform the functions of management and to assume multiple roles, managers must be skilled. Robert Katz identified three managerial skills that are essential to successful management: technical, human, and conceptual.
· Technical skill involves process or technique knowledge and proficiency. Managers use the processes, techniques and tools of a specific area.
· Human skill involves the ability to interact effectively with people. Managers interact and cooperate with employees.
· Conceptual skill involves the formulation of ideas. Managers understand abstract relationships, develop ideas, and solve problems creatively. Thus, technical skill deals with things, human skill concerns people, and conceptual skill has to do with ideas.
A manager's level in the organization determines the relative importance of possessing technical, human, and conceptual skills. Top level managers need conceptual skills in order to view the organization as a whole. Conceptual skills are used in planning and dealing with ideas and abstractions. Supervisors need technical skills to manage their area of specialty. All levels of management need human skills in order to interact and communicate with other people successfully.
Management System
Internal Environment
The management system can be conceptualized on two levels. The first level involves the organization's internal environment. Internally, an organization can be viewed as a resource conversion machine that takes inputs (labor, money, materials and equipment) from the external environment (i.e., the outside world), converts them into useful products, goods, and services, and makes them available to customers as outputs.
External Environment
The second level of the management system involves the organization's external environment. It consists of all the outside institutions and forces that have an actual or potential interest or impact on the organization's ability to achieve its objectives: competitive, economic, technological, political, legal, demographic, cultural, and ecosystem.
Environmental forces create challenges and opportunites for the organization. Managers must react and adapt to changes in their internal and external environment. Globalization is an example of an opportunity for an organization. Improving technologies, such as transportation and communications, have enabled companies to expand into global or worldwide markets. Globalization affects how organizations are managed. Managers must learn to deal effectively with multiple cultures and political systems in the midst of rapidly changing markets and technology. They must be able to anticipate this changing environment and develop the vision and competencies at all levels in their organizations to embrace this dynamic future.

Factors effecting work of mangers

•The nature of the organisation, its philosophy, objectives and size
•The type of structure
•Activities and tasks involved
•Technology and methods of performing work
•The nature of people employed
•The level in the organisation at which the manager is working


















Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about how people, individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a system approach. That is, it interprets people-organization relationships in terms of the whole person, whole group, whole organization, and whole social system. Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives, organizational objectives, and social objectives.
Elements of Organizational Behavior
The organization's base rests on management's philosophy, values, vision and goals. This in turn drives the organizational culture which is composed of the formal organization, informal organization, and the social environment. The culture determines the type of leadership, communication, and group dynamics within the organization. The workers perceive this as the quality of work life which directs their degree of motivation. The final outcome are performance, individual satisfaction, and personal growth and development. All these elements combine to build the model or framework that the organization operates from.
Models of Organizational Behavior
There are four major models or frameworks that organizations operate out of:
Autocratic - The basis of this model is power with a managerial orientation of authority. The employees in turn are oriented towards obedience and dependence on the boss. The employee need that is met is subsistence. The performance result is minimal.
Custodial - The basis of this model is economic resources with a managerial orientation of money. The employees in turn are oriented towards security and benefits and dependence on the organization. The employee need that is met is security. The performance result is passive cooperation.
Supportive - The basis of this model is leadership with a managerial orientation of support. The employees in turn are oriented towards job performance and participation. The employee need that is met is status and recognition. The performance result is awakened drives.
Collegial - The basis of this model is partnership with a managerial orientation of teamwork. The employees in turn are oriented towards responsible behavior and self-discipline. The employee need that is met is self-actualization. The performance result is moderate enthusiasm.
Although there are four separate models, almost no organization operates exclusively in one. There will usually be a predominate one, with one or more areas over-lapping in the other models.

Influences on OB

1. Individuals - Are a central feature of OB and a necessary part of any behavioural set. Bring to the organisation their personality, skills and attributes, values, needs and expectations. Also, can create conflict if their needs and the demands of the organisation are incompatible
Management and the individual -Management’s task is to integrate the individual & the organisation, providing a working environment that permits the satisfaction of individual needs & attainment of organisation goals

1.

2. Groups - Are essential to organisational working and performance, comprise a range of different individuals, can develop their own hierarchies and leaders and can have a major influence on behaviour and performance of individual members. Have their own structures and functions, role relationships and influences and pressure


An understanding of group structure and behaviour complements a knowledge of individual behaviour


3. Organization itself - Individuals & groups interact within the structure of the formal organisation. Organisational structure is created by management to:
- establish a relationship between individuals & groups
- provide order and systems to direct efforts of the organisation into goal seeking activities
The formal structure allows people/groups to carry out organisational activities to achieve aims & objectives. Behaviour is affected by patterns of organisational structure



4. Environment- The environment affects the organisation through:
•technological & scientific development
•economic activity
•social & cultural influences
•government activities
The effects of the operation of the organisation within its environment are reflected in the:
•management of opportunities & risks
•successful achievement of organisational aims & objectives


















Human behavior is the collection of behaviors exhibited by human beings and influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.
Factors affecting human behavior
· Genetics - Genes attempts to explain mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception. Evolutionary psychologists argue that humans have inherited special mental capacities for acquiring language, making it nearly automatic, while inheriting no capacity specifically for reading and writing. Other adaptations, according to EP, might include the abilities to infer others' emotions, to discern kin from non-kin, to identify and prefer healthier mates, to cooperate with others, and so on.
Attitude – It is the degree to which the person has a favourable or unfavourable evaluation of the behaviour in question.
Social Norms – This is the influence of social pressure that is perceived by the individual (normative beliefs) to perform or not perform a certain behaviour.
Perceived Behavioural Control – This is the individual’s belief concerning how easy or difficult performing the behaviour will be.

Organizational behavior is an academic discipline concerned with describing, understanding, predicting, and controlling human behavior in an organizational environment. The field is particularly concerned with group dynamics, how individuals relate to and participate in groups, how leadership is exercised, how organizations function, and how change is effected in organizational settings. When organizational behavior theory is directed specifically at ways in which management can control an organization, it is sometimes known as organizational behavior management, or OBM.
Organizational behavior is a fairly new discipline, dating back to the early 20th century, although some experts suggest that it came into existence right after the U.S. Civil War. Organizational behavior has evolved from early classical management theories into a complex school of thought, and it continues to change in response to the dynamic workforce in which today's businesses operate.
THE CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT SCHOOL
In 1911, Frederick W. Taylor's book, Principles of Scientific Management, was published. This book marked the first serious attempt to publish the results of scientific management studies aimed at motivating workers to produce more. Taylor was the best known of a group of people, primarily mechanical engineers, who applied time-and-motion study concepts in the workplace. These engineers focused on the task concept to show that workers could be motivated to produce more, especially if they were offered an incentive to do so.
The task concept centered around the idea that if managers planned workers' tasks at least one day in advance, production would increase. Taylor devised a differential piece-rate system based on two different rates of pay. His system was simple: workers who did less than the expected output received a low rate of pay. Those who exceeded the standard earned more money. That was a radical idea for the time. It separated the worker from the machine and indicated that employees could control how much they produced. Taylor also suggested in his approach that money motivated workers. This, too, was a unique idea. This approach became known as Theory X, and it would later be distinguished from other theories that took a different view of worker motivation and human nature. What Taylor did not do, however, was take into account group behavior. He, like most classical managers, had no concept of the importance of workers as members of groups. The next wave of theorists, the human relations experts, addressed the issue of group behavior.
THE HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENTS
Human relationists tried to add a human dimension to classical theory in their studies. They did not try to refute the classical management proponents. Rather, they introduced the idea that workers would be willing to accept as part of their reward humane treatment, personal attention, and a chance to feel wanted. To prove their point, human relationists embarked on a series of experiments.
Perhaps the most significant experiments were the Hawthorne experiments. The studies began in 1924 at the Hawthorne Works, part of the Western Electric Company, located in Cicero, Illinois. The researchers' original goal was to measure the effect of illumination on output. In simplified terms, what they actually learned was that an individual's work performance, position, and status in an organization are determined not only by the individual, but by group members, too. They also learned that workers formed cliques that affected their production and that there were certain codes of conduct members of individual cliques were expected to follow. The Hawthorne studies opened the door to more experiments by other human relationists.
HUMAN RESOURCES THEORY
The next group to take center stage in the organizational behavior arena postulated that a manager's role was not to control workers, but to facilitate employee performance. According to human resources experts, people work to make a living, but their efforts go far beyond just laboring. They also work to fulfill certain needs, e.g., contributing to organizational objectives, attaining a feeling of accomplishment, and using their creativity in the work environment. Managers were well advised to keep all these needs in mind when dealing with workers. According to the human resources theorists, managers should apply mutual goal-setting and problem-solving approaches to their workforce members. Their approach has been termed Theory Y.
Managers were encouraged to make use of whatever training was necessary to ensure maximum performance. The training could take a variety of forms, i.e., technical, human, or conceptual. They were also advised to open communication lines in all directions to promote organizational effectiveness. After all, the theorists emphasized, workers welcome self-direction and self-control and will perform well when managers take an interest in their lives. In short, the human resources advocates said, managers should place their primary emphasis on using workers as if they are important human assets.
THE SYSTEM APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Modem theorists apply a five-part system approach to organizational behavior:
the individual
the formal organization
the informal organization
the fusion process, in which the first three modify and shape one another
the physical environment
Each part is essential. None can exist alone in the system. This system approach is the basis for modem organizational theory, which is founded on behavioral science studies.
THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
There are three behavioral sciences: psychology (the study of individual behavior), sociology (the study of social behavior within societies, institutions, and groups), and anthropology (the study of the origin, cultural development, and behavior of humans). Each has made important contributions to the study of organizational behavior.
From an organizational standpoint, psychologists are concerned with the processes of learning, perception, and motivation. Sociologists study the various organizations that compose society, e.g., political, legal, business, governmental, and religious bodies. Finally, anthropologists are interested in the impact of culture on behavior. The three disciplines have had a major impact on the study of organizational behavior.
Organizational behavior scientists study four areas: individual behavior, group behavior, organizational structure, and organizational processes. They investigate facets of these areas like personality and perception, attitudes and job satisfaction, group dynamics, politics and the role of leadership in the organization, job design, the impact of stress on work, decision-making processes, the communications chain, and company cultures and climates. They use a variety of techniques and approaches to evaluate each facet and its impact on individuals, groups, and organizational efficiency and effectiveness.
In regard to individuals and groups, researchers try to ascertain why people behave the way they do. They have developed a variety of models designed to explain individuals' behavior. They investigate the factors that influence personality development, including genetic, situational, environmental, cultural, and social factors. Researchers also look at personality types such as authoritarian (people who adhere closely to conventional values) and dogmatic (people who are extremely rigid in their beliefs). They want to find out what causes a person to form either type of personality and learn whether one or the other—or neither—is a positive trait for people in the business world.
Researchers have also studied a number of concepts, including:
1. Stereotyping—the process of categorizing people based on limited information
2. Halo effect—the use of known personal traits as the basis for an overall evaluation
3. Perceptual defense—the process of screening out or distorting information that is disturbing or that people do not care to acknowledge
4. Projection—people attribute their own undesirable traits or characteristics to others.
They evaluate perception versus reality, individuals' locus of control (whether they believe they or outside forces are in control of their lives), and common problems resulting from these personality traits and characteristics. Finally, they look at an individual's attitudes and correlate them to job satisfaction and job performance.
THE IMPORTANCE OF JOB SATISFACTION STUDIES IN OB
The study of job satisfaction is central to organizational behavioral scientists. Companies want to know why their employees are or are not satisfied. If they are not happy, executives look to the behavioral scientists for ways to improve individuals' attitudes and to suggest ways of improving the work environment. This implies that the theorists have to look well beyond the tangible factors influencing job satisfaction, such as pay, benefits, promotional opportunities, and working conditions. They have to study how groups influence the workplace and individuals' expectations.
THE FUTURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
The international economy has taken on added importance in organizational behavior circles in recent years, as international companies have special requirements and dynamics to contend with. Researchers currently are studying such things as communications between and among foreign business operations, cultural differences and their impact on individuals, language difficulties, motivation techniques in different cultures, as well as the differences in leadership and decision-making practices from country to country.
Today, organizational behavior scientists are dealing with a wide range of problems confronting the business world. For instance, they continue to study downsizing, career development in the global economy, social issues such as substance abuse and changes in family composition, and the global economy. They are trying to determine just what effects such factors are having on the workplace and what can be done to alleviate associated problems.
Motivation
Closely related to employee satisfaction and morale, employee motivation may be considered both an action and a status. The action occurs when management takes steps to foster a work environment where employees are self-driven to perform their job tasks at a level that meets or exceeds management's standards. Employee motivation as a status simply describes the degree to which management succeeds: employees are relatively motivated or unmotivated when measured against one or more performance gauges.
There are a host of competing ideas—among both scholars and lay people—about what motivates workers. Most of these ideas focus on the types of rewards employees derive (or at least expect to derive) from their jobs and, in particular, intrinsic versus extrinsic benefits. Intrinsic rewards are those that stem from performing the work itself. They can include, among other things, feeling important or successful, learning valuable skills, and enjoying the outcomes of completed work (e.g., helping other people, pioneering new technology). Extrinsic rewards, on the other hand, accompany the work process but aren't directly part of it. The most common are financial compensation and benefits such as health insurance and paid time off. Many modern theories of employee motivation emphasize intrinsic rewards as being central to the motivation process, while extrinsic rewards are often seen as necessary but not sufficient.
Overall, the basic perspective on motivation looks something like this:
In other words, you have certain needs or wants (these terms will be used interchangeably), and this causes you to do certain things (behavior), which satisfy those needs (satisfaction), and this can then change which needs/wants are primary (either intensifying certain ones, or allowing you to move on to other ones).
EVOLUTION OF MOTIVATION THEORIES
Mainstream theories about employee motivation have varied greatly over the past century. Early conceptions, sometimes termed "traditional" management theory, assumed that work was an intrinsically undesirable pursuit and that workers naturally sought to do as little as possible. This translated into a sort of carrot-and-stick managerial policy whereby companies tried to maximize motivation by providing adequate compensation as an incentive but also by guarding against any sign of wayward behavior through authoritarian control regimes.
A backlash in the 1940s and 1950s against such policies, which did not always prove particularly successful, emphasized building a conducive social environment in which workers felt valued and respected. This model still maintained management's authority over all critical matters, but attempted to make the workplace more palatable by humanizing it.
Current notions of employee motivation started to take root in the 1960s. Elaborating on the importance of human factors, contemporary theories envision workers as large and often untapped reserves of skills, ideas, and other potential benefits to an organization. The motivation process, according to this view, involves tailoring the work environment and incentive structure to harness as much of this potential as possible. This approach emphasizes granting employees greater flexibility, power, responsibility, and autonomy so that, to some extent, they may shape their own work environments as they see fit, while remaining accountable for both favorable and unfavorable outcomes of their actions.
THEORIES APPLIED
Some attempts to bolster employee motivation still consider only extrinsic rewards. Endless mixes of employee benefits such as health care and life insurance, profit sharing, employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs), exercise facilities, subsidized meal plans, child care availability, company cars, and more have been used by companies in their efforts to maintain happy employees. Although some experts argue that many of these efforts, if only directed at motivating employees, are just a waste of company money, it is clear that for certain individuals in certain scenarios, monetary incentives can stimulate better job performance—at least for a while.
The debate, rather, has been over whether such material factors have more than a superficial impact on motivation. Many modern theorists propose that the motivation an employee feels toward his or her job has less to do with material rewards such as those described above, than with the design of the job itself. Studies as far back as 1924 show that simplified, repetitive jobs, for instance, fostered boredom and the taking of frequent, unauthorized breaks by those who performed them. In 1950 a series of attitude surveys found that highly segmented and simplified jobs resulted in lower employee morale and output. Other consequences of low employee motivation include absenteeism and high employee turnover, both very costly for businesses. "Job enlargement" initiatives began to crop up in major companies in the 1950s, with one champion of the cause being IBM founder Thomas Watson, Sr. On the academic front, Turner and Lawrence proposed task attributes that characterize jobs that motivate.
Turner and Lawrence suggest that there are three basic characteristics of a "motivating" job:
1. It must allow a worker to feel personally responsible for a meaningful portion of the work accomplished. An employee must feel ownership of and connection to the work he or she performs. Even in team situations, a successful effort will foster an individual's awareness that his or her contributions were important in accomplishing the group's tasks.
2. It must provide outcomes which have intrinsic meaning to the individual. Effective work that does not lead a worker to feel that his or her efforts matter will not be maintained. The outcome of an employee's work must have value to him or hers and to others in the organization.
3. It must provide the employee feedback about his or her accomplishments. A constructive, believable critique of the work performed is crucial to a worker's continuance or improvement of that which has already been performed.
In 1971 Hackman and Lawler tested these ideas. Using a telephone company as a test site, they surveyed 200 employees to determine relationships between employee attitudes and behavior and the characteristics of the employee's job. The study also assessed whether an employee's reaction to his or her work was dependent upon particular kinds of satisfactions valued by the employee. Positive correlations were found to exist between the quality of an employee's job, with quality jobs meeting the three criteria above, and positive employee attitudes and behavior. Further, "doing well" at a job was interpreted by the employee as having put in a high quality performance, rather than a high quantity performance. Employees felt positively when they had accomplished something they felt was meaningful, and strove to do so if given an encouraging opportunity.
MOTIVATION TOOLS
The methods of motivating employees today are as numerous and different as the companies operating in the global business environment. What is the nature of the company and its industry? Is it small or big? What kind of culture is fostered? Is it conservative or innovative? What is important to the employees? What steps have been taken to find out?
The best employee motivation efforts focus on what employees deem to be important. It may be that employees within the same department of the same organization will have different motivators. Many organizations today find that flexibility in job design and reward has resulted in employees' increased longevity with the company, increased productivity, and better morale. Although this "cafeteria-plan" approach to the work-reward continuum presents variety, some strategies are prevalent across all organizations that strive to improve employee motivation.
1. EMPOWERMENT.
Giving employees more responsibility and decision-making authority increases their control over the tasks for which they are held responsible and better equips them to carry out those tasks. Trapped feelings arising from being held accountable for something one does not have the resources to carry out are diminished. Energy is diverted from self-preservation to improved task accomplishment. Empowerment brings the job enlargement of the 1950s and the job enrichment that began in the 1960s to a higher level by giving the employees some of the power to expand their own jobs and create new, personally identified challenges.
2. CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION.
At many companies, employees with creative ideas do not express them to management for fear of jeopardizing their jobs. Company approval and toeing the company line have become so ingrained in some working environments that both the employee and the organization suffer. When the power to create in the organization is pushed down from the upper echelon to line personnel, employees are empowered and those who know a job, product, or service best are given the opportunity to use their ideas to improve it. The power to create motivates employees and benefits the organization in having a more flexible workforce, using more wisely the experience of its employees and increasing the exchange of ideas and information among employees and departments. These improvements also create an openness to change that can give a company the ability to respond quickly to market changes and sustain a first mover advantage in the marketplace. Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co., better known as 3M, has fostered company wide creativity for decades. Its relentless support of new ideas has paid off in profitability and loyal employees who are so motivated that they have the most nimble and successful new product development system in the industry. MCI (now part of MCI WorldCom), too, encourages employees to develop new ideas and take chances with them. A top manager there stated, "We don't shoot people who make mistakes around here, we shoot people who don't take risks."
3.LEARNING.
If employees are given the tools and the opportunities to accomplish more, most will take on the challenge. Companies can motivate employees to achieve more by committing to perpetual enhancement of employee skills. Accreditation and licensing programs for employees are an increasingly popular and effective way to bring about growth in employee knowledge and motivation. Often, these programs improve employees' attitudes toward the client and the company, while bolstering self-confidence. Supporting this assertion, an analysis of factors which influence motivation to learn found that it is directly related to the extent to which training participants believe that such participation will affect their job or career utility. In other words, if the body of knowledge gained can be applied to the work to be accomplished, then the acquisition of that knowledge will be a worthwhile event for the employee and employer.
4.QUALITY OF LIFE.
The number of hours worked each week by American workers is on the rise again and many families have two adults working those increased hours. Under these circumstances, many workers are left wondering how to meet the demands of their lives beyond the workplace. Often, this concern occurs while at work and may reduce an employee's productivity and morale. Companies that have instituted flexible employee arrangements have gained motivated employees whose productivity has increased. Programs incorporating flextime, condensed workweeks, or job sharing, for example, have been successful in focusing overwhelmed employees toward the work to be done and away from the demands of their private lives.
5.MONETARY INCENTIVE.
For all the championing of alternative motivators, money still occupies a rightful place in the mix of motivators. The sharing of a company's profits gives incentive to employees to produce a quality product, perform a quality service, or improve the quality of a process within the company. What benefits the company directly benefits the employee. Monetary and other rewards are being given to employees for generating cost savings or process-improving ideas, to boost productivity and reduce absenteeism. Money is effective when it is directly tied to an employee's ideas or accomplishments. Nevertheless, if not coupled with other, nonmonetary motivators, its motivating effects are short-lived. Further, monetary incentives can prove counterproductive if not made available to all members of the organization.
6.OTHER INCENTIVES.
Study after study has found that the most effective motivators of workers are non-monetary. Monetary systems are insufficient, in part because expectations often exceed results and because disparity between salaried individuals may divide rather than unite employees. Proven non-monetary motivators foster team spirit and include recognition, responsibility, and advancement. Managers who recognize the "small wins" of employees, promote participatory environments, and treat employees with fairness and respect will find their employees to be more highly motivated. One company's managers brainstormed to come up with 30 powerful rewards that cost little or nothing to implement. The most effective rewards, such as letters of commendation and time off from work, enhanced personal fulfillment and self-respect. Over the longer term, sincere praise and personal gestures are far more effective and more economical than awards of money alone. In the end, a program that combines monetary reward systems and satisfies intrinsic, self-actualizing needs may be the most potent employee motivator.
Training and development refer to programs designed to help new employees adjust to the workplace successfully. In addition, they include the formal ongoing efforts of corporations and other organizations to improve the performance and self-fulfillment of their employees through a variety of methods and programs. In the modem workplace, these efforts have taken on a broad range of applications, from training in highly specific job skills to long-term professional development, and are applicable to all sorts of employees ranging from line workers to the chief executive officer. Training and development have emerged as formal corporate functions, integral elements of corporate strategy, and are recognized as professions with distinct theories and methodologies as companies increasingly acknowledge the fundamental importance of employee growth and development, as well as the necessity of a highly skilled workforce, in order to improve the success and efficiency of their organizations.
For the most part, training and development are used together to bring about the overall acclimation, improvement, and education of an organization's employees. While closely related, there are important differences between the terms and the scope of each. In general, training programs have very specific and quantifiable goals, such as operating a particular piece of machinery, understanding a specific process, or performing certain procedures with great precision. On the other hand, developmental programs concentrate on broader skills that are applicable to a wider variety of situations, such as decision- making, leadership skills, and goal setting. In short, training programs are typically tied to a particular subject matter and are applicable to that subject only, while developmental programs center on cultivating and enriching broader skills useful in numerous contexts.
Theories of Motivation
I. ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer extended and simplified Maslow’s Theory into a shorter set of three needs: Existence, Relatedness and Growth (hence 'ERG'). Unlike Maslow, he did not see these as being a hierarchy, but being more of a continuum.
Existence
At the lowest level is the need to stay alive and safe, now and in the foreseeable future. When we have satisfied existence needs, we feel safe and physically comfortable. This includes Maslow's Physiological and Safety needs.
Relatedness
At the next level, once we are safe and secure, we consider our social needs. We are now interested in relationships with other people and what they think of us. When we are related, we feel a sense of identity and position within our immediate society. This encompasses Maslow's Love/belonging and Esteem needs.
Growth
At the highest level, we seek to grow, be creative for ourselves and for our environment. When we are successfully growing, we feel a sense of wholeness, achievement and fulfilment. This covers Maslow's Self-actualization and Transcendence.
II. McClelland Need Theory
Need are shaped over time by our experiences over time. Most of these fall into three general categories of needs:
Achievement (nAch)
Affiliation (nAff)
Power (nPow)
Acquired Needs Theory is also known as the Three-Need Theory or Learned Need Theory.
We have different preferences
We will tend have one of these needs that affects us more powerfully than others and thus affects our behaviors:
Achievers seek to excel and appreciate frequent recognition of how well they are doing. They will avoid low risk activities that have no chance of gain. They also will avoid high risks where there is a significant chance of failure.
Affiliation seekers look for harmonious relationships with other people. They will thus tend to conform and shy away from standing out. The seek approval rather than recognition.
Power seekers want power either to control other people (for their own goals) or to achieve higher goals (for the greater good). They seek neither recognition nor approval from others -- only agreement and compliance.
III. Expectancy theory
As we constantly are predicting likely futures, we create expectations about future events. If things seem reasonably likely and attractive, we know how to get there and we believe we can 'make the difference' then this will motivate us to act to make this future come true.
This theory is meant to bring together many of the elements of previous theories. It combines the perceptual aspects of equity theory with the behavioral aspects of the other theories. Basically, it comes down to this "equation":
M = E*I*V
Motivation = expectancy * instrumentality * valence
M (motivation) is the amount a person will be motivated by the situation they find themselves in. It is a function of the following.
E (expectancy) = The person's perception that effort will result in performance. In other words, the person's assessment of the degree to which effort actually correlates with performance.
I (instrumentality) = The person's perception that performance will be rewarded/punished. I.e., the person's assessment of how well the amount of reward correlates with the quality of performance.
V(valence) = The perceived strength of the reward or punishment that will result from the performance. If the reward is small, the motivation will be small, even if expectancy and instrumentality are both perfect (high).
This theory holds that motivate people to do something by showing them something desirable, indicating how straightforward it is to get it, and then supporting their self-belief that they can get there.
IV. Equity Theory
People are happiest in relationships where the give and take are about equal. If one person is getting too little from the relationship, then not only are they going to be unhappy with this—the person getting the lion’s share will also be feeling rather guilty about this imbalance. This is reinforced by strong social norms about fairness.
In short-term relationships we tend to trade in things, such as loaning small sums or buying beers. In longer-term relationships the trade is more emotional.
Overall, though, it is still better to be getting more than less—although you could feel better about the relationship, the benefits you get from it can buy you compensatory happiness elsewhere.
V. Goal setting Theory
In order to direct ourselves we set ourselves goals that are:
Clear (not vague) and understandable, so we know what to do and what not to do.
Challenging, so we will be stimulated and not be bored.
Achievable, so we are unlikely to fail.
If other people set us goals without our involvement, then we are much less likely to be motivated to work hard at it than if we feel we have set or directed the goal ourselves.
Feedback
When we are working in the task, we need feedback so we can determine whether we are succeeding or whether we need to change direction. We find feedback (if it is sympathetically done) very encouraging and motivating. This includes feedback from ourselves. Negative self-talk is just as demotivating as negative comments from other people.
Directional and accuracy goals
Depending on the type of goal we have, we will go about achieving it differently.
A directional goal is one where we are motivated to arrive at a particular conclusion. We will thus narrow our thinking, selecting beliefs, etc. that support the conclusion. The lack of deliberation also tends to make us more optimistic about achieving the goal.
An accuracy goal is one where we are motivated to arrive at the most accurate possible conclusion. These occur when the cost of being inaccurate is high. Unsurprisingly, people invest more effort in achieving accuracy goals, as any deviation costs, and a large deviation may well more. Their deliberation also makes them realize that there is a real chance that they will not achieve their goal. When we have an accuracy goal we do not get to a 'good enough' point and stop thinking about it--we continue to search for improvements.
Both methods work by influencing our choice of beliefs and decision-making rules.
VI. Maslow’s Nedd Hierarchy Theory
The basis of Abraham Maslow's theory is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower factors need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied. According to Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological, survival, safety, love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He called these needs "deficiency needs." As long as we are motivated to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, toward self-actualization. Satisfying needs is healthy, while preventing gratification makes us sick or act evilly.
As a result, for adequate workplace motivation, it is important that leadership understands the active needs active for individual employee motivation. In this manner, Maslow's model indicates that fundamental, lower-order needs like safety and physiological requirements have to be satisfied in order to pursue higher-level motivators along the lines of self-fulfillment. As depicted in the following hierarchical diagram, sometimes called 'Maslow's Needs Pyramid' or 'Maslow's Needs Triangle', after a need is satisfied it stops acting as a motivator and the next need one rank higher starts to motivate.
a) Self-Actualization
Self-actualization is the summit of Maslow's motivation theory. It is about the quest of reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower level needs, this need is never fully satisfied; as one grows psychologically there are always new opportunities to continue to grow.
Self-actualized people tend to have motivators such as:
Truth
Justice
Wisdom
Meaning
Self-actualized persons have frequent occurrences of peak experiences, which are energized moments of profound happiness and harmony. According to Maslow, only a small percentage of the population reaches the level of self-actualization.
b) Esteem Needs
After a person feels that they "belong", the urge to attain a degree of importance emerges. Esteem needs can be categorized as external motivators and internal motivators.
Internally motivating esteem needs are those such as self-esteem, accomplishment, and self respect. External esteem needs are those such as reputation and recognition.
Some examples of esteem needs are:
Recognition (external motivator)
Attention (external motivator)
Social Status (external motivator)
Accomplishment (internal motivator)
Self-respect (internal motivator)
c) Social Needs
Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher level motivators awaken. The first level of higher level needs are social needs. Social needs are those related to interaction with others and may include:
Friendship
Belonging to a group
Giving and receiving love
d) Safety Needs
Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security in order to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by:
Living in a safe area
Medical insurance
Job security
Financial reserves
e) Physiological Needs
Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as:
Air
Water
Food
Sleep
According to this theory, if these fundamental needs are not satisfied then one will surely be motivated to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social needs and esteem are not recognized until one satisfies the needs basic to existence.
Applying Maslow's Needs Hierarchy - Business Management Implications
If Maslow's theory is true, there are some very important leadership implications to enhance workplace motivation. There are staff motivation opportunities by motivating each employee through their style of management, compensation plans, role definition, and company activities.
Physiological Motivation: Provide ample breaks for lunch and recuperation and pay salaries that allow workers to buy life's essentials.
Safety Needs: Provide a working environment which is safe, relative job security, and freedom from threats.
Social Needs: Generate a feeling of acceptance, belonging, and community by reinforcing team dynamics.
Esteem Motivators: Recognize achievements, assign important projects, and provide status to make employees feel valued and appreciated.
Self-Actualization: Offer challenging and meaningful work assignments which enable innovation, creativity, and progress according to long-term goals.
Maslow's Theory - Limitations and Criticism
Though Maslow's hierarchy makes sense intuitively, little evidence supports its strict hierarchy. Actually, recent research challenges the order that the needs are imposed by Maslow's pyramid. As an example, in some cultures, social needs are placed more fundamentally than any others. Further, Maslow's hierarchy fails to explain the "starving artist" scenario, in which the aesthetic neglects their physical needs to pursuit of aesthetic or spiritual goals. Additionally, little evidence suggests that people satisfy exclusively one motivating need at a time, other than situations where needs conflict.
VII. Herzberg’s Theory X & Y
Douglas McGregor published "The Human Side of Enterprise" in 1960, in which he suggested that traditional management methods (which he called Theory X) might not be the only way to get people motivated. Instead, you could take a different approach (based on Theory Y) and achieve the same if not more.
Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control, based on these assumptions:
1. The average person inherently dislikes work and will avoid it if at all possible.
2. As a result, most people have to be coerced, controlled and threatened if they are to put in enough effort to achieve the organisation's goals.
3. In fact the average person prefers to be directed, avoids responsibility, isn't ambitious and simply seeks security.
Theory Y, based on the integration of individual and organisational goals, assumes:
1. The physical and mental effort of work is as natural as play or rest, so the average person doesn't inherently dislike work.
2. We are capable of self-direction and self-control, so those factors don't necessarily have to come from elsewhere.
3. Our commitment to an objective is a function of the rewards for its achievement.
4. The average person learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility.
5. Most people have a capacity for imagination, ingenuity and creativity.
6. The intellectual potential of most people is under-used in modern industrial life.
Theory Y is not a soft option. In fact it can take as much management effort as Theory X, but the effects of a Theory Y approach will last longer. The Theory X manager is a dying breed (although it has to be said he's not yet extinct), and Theory Y lies behind most modern approaches to motivation. Nowadays the terminology is used as a polite way of referring to the old command-and-control approach to management: the trouble is the diehard Theory X manager won't pick up the subtle criticism!

VIII. Hygiene Theory
Frederick Herzberg studied and practised clinical psychology in Pittsburgh, where he researched the work-related motivations of thousands of employees. His findings were published in "The Motivation to Work" in 1959. He concluded that there were two types of motivation:
Hygiene Factors that can demotivate if they are not present - such as supervision, interpersonal relations, physical working conditions, and salary. Hygiene Factors affect the level of dissatisfaction, but are rarely quoted as creators of job satisfaction.
Motivation Factors that will motivate if they are present - such as achievement, advancement, recognition and responsibility. Dissatisfaction isn't normally blamed on Motivation Factors, but they are cited as the cause of job satisfaction.

IX. The Porter and Lawler Model :
Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler developed a more complete version of motivation depending upon expectancy theory.


EMOTIONS
An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings, thoughts, and behaviours. It is a prime determinant of the sense of subjective well-being and appears to play a central role in many human activities.
I. Stoicism named four primary passions:
Distress is an irrational contraction or a fresh opinion that something bad is present at which people think it right to be depressed.
Envy is distress incurred by reason of a neighbor's prosperity.
Rivalry is distress, should another be in possession of the object desired and one has to go without it oneself.
Jealousy is distress arising from the fact that the thing one has coveted oneself is in the possession of the other man as well as one's own.
Compassion is distress arising from the wretchedness of a neighbor in undeserved suffering.
Anxiety is oppressive distress.
Mourning is distress arising from the untimely absence of a beloved object.
Sadness is tearful distress.
Troubledness is burdensome distress.
Grief is torturing distress.
Lament is distress accompanied by wailing.
Depression is distress accompanied by brooding.
Vexation is lasting distress.
Despondency is distress without any prospect of amelioration.
Fear is an irrational risk aversion or avoidance of an expected risk.
Sluggishness is fear of ensuing toil.
Shame is fear causing diffusion of blood.
Fright is paralyzing fear which causes paleness, trembling and chattering of teeth.
Timidity is fear of approaching evil.
Consternation is fear upsetting the mind balance.
Pusillanimity is fear following on the heels of fright like an attendant.
Bewilderment is fear paralyzing thought.
Faintheartedness is lasting fear.
Lust is an irrational desire or pursuit of an expected good.
Revenge is lust of punishing the man who is thought to have inflicted an undeserved injury.
Rage is anger springing up and suddenly showing itself.
Hatred is inveterate anger.
Enmity is anger watching as opportunity for revenge.
Wrath is anger of greater bitterness conceived in the innermost heart and soul.
Greed is insatiable lust.
Longing is lust of beholding someone who is not present.
Delight is an irrational swelling or a fresh opinion that something good is present at which people think it right to be mania.
Malice is pleasure derived from a neighbor's evil which brings no advantage to oneself.
Rapture is pleasure soothing the soul by charm of the sense of hearing.
Smug is arrogance and a feeling of knowing everything
Ostentation is pleasure shown in outward demeanor and puffing oneself out extravagantly.
II. Plutchik's wheel of emotions
Robert Plutchik created a wheel of emotions in 1980 which consisted of 8 basic emotions and 8 advanced emotions each composed of 2 basic ones.
Basic emotion
Basic opposite
Joy
Sadness
Acceptance
Disgust
Fear
Anger
Surprise
Anticipation
Sadness
Joy
Disgust
Acceptance
Anger
Fear
Anticipation
Surprise

Advanced emotion
Composed of...
Advanced opposite
Optimism
Anticipation + Joy
Disappointment
Love
Joy + Acceptance
Remorse
Submission
Acceptance + Fear
Contempt
Awe
Fear + Surprise
Aggressiveness
Disappointment
Surprise + Sadness
Optimism
Remorse
Sadness + Disgust
Love
Contempt
Disgust + Anger
Submission
Aggressiveness
Anger + Anticipation
Awe
III. Emotions by groups
Here is a categorised, tree structured list of emotions as described by Parrot (2001).
Primary emotion
Secondary emotion
Tertiary emotions
Love
Affection
Adoration, affection, love, fondness, liking, attraction, caring, tenderness, compassion, sentimentality

Lust
Arousal, desire, lust, passion, infatuation

Longing
Longing
Joy
Cheerfulness
Amusement, bliss, cheerfulness, gaiety, glee, jolliness, joviality, joy, delight, enjoyment, gladness, happiness, jubilation, elation, satisfaction, ecstasy, euphoria

Zest
Enthusiasm, zeal, zest, excitement, thrill, exhilaration

Contentment
Contentment, pleasure

Pride
Pride, triumph

Optimism
Eagerness, hope, optimism

Enthrallment
Enthrallment, rapture

Relief
Relief
Surprise
Surprise
Amazement, surprise, astonishment
Anger
Irritation
Aggravation, irritation, agitation, annoyance, grouchiness, grumpiness

Exasperation
Exasperation, frustration

Rage
Anger, rage, outrage, fury, wrath, hostility, ferocity, bitterness, hate, loathing, scorn, spite, vengefulness, dislike, resentment

Disgust
Disgust, revulsion, contempt

Envy
Envy, jealousy

Torment
Torment
Sadness
Suffering
Agony, suffering, hurt, anguish

Sadness
Depression, despair, hopelessness, gloom, glumness, sadness, unhappiness, grief, sorrow, woe, misery, melancholy

Disappointment
Dismay, disappointment, displeasure

Shame
Guilt, shame, regret, remorse

Neglect
Alienation, isolation, neglect, loneliness, rejection, homesickness, defeat, dejection, insecurity, embarrassment, humiliation, insult

Sympathy
Pity, sympathy
Fear
Horror
Alarm, shock, fear, fright, horror, terror, panic, hysteria, mortification

Nervousness
Anxiety, nervousness, tenseness, uneasiness, apprehension, worry, distress, dread
IV. Lojban emotions
The artificial language Lojban has interjections expressing degrees of emotions. These include:
Simple emotions
discovery - confusion
gain - loss
generosity - greed
surprise - no surprise - expectation
wonder - commonplace
happiness - unhappiness
amusement - weariness
completion - incompleteness
caring - loving
courage - timidity- cowardice
pity- cruelty
repentance- lack of regret - innocence
Complex emotions
pride - modesty - shame
closeness - detachment - distance
complaint/pain - doing OK - pleasure
caution - boldness - rashness - drama
patience - mere tolerance - anger
relaxation - composure - stress
Pure emotions
fear - nervousness - security
togetherness - privacy
respect - disrespect
appreciation - envy
love - indifference - hatred
familiarity - mystery
Propositional attitudes
attentive - inattentive - avoiding
alertness - exhaustion
intent - indecision - refusal
effort - no real effort - repose
hope - despair
desire - indifference - reluctance
interest - no interest - repulsion
Complex propositional attitudes
permission - prohibition
competence - incompetence
obligation- freedom
constraint - independence - resistance to constraint
request - negative request
suggestion - no suggestion - warning
understand - confused
Theories of Emotion
I. James-Lange Theory of Emotion
We have experiences, and as a result, our autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, heart rate increases, perspiration, dryness of the mouth, etc. This theory proposes that emotions happen as a result of these, rather than being the cause of them.
The sequence thus is as follows:
Event ==> arousal ==> interpretation ==> emotion
The bodily sensation prepares us for action, as in the Fight –Flight Reaction. Emotions grab our attention and at least attenuate slower cognitive processing. Lange particularly added that vasomotor changes are the emotions.
Example
I see a bear. My muscles tense, my heart races. I feel afraid.
II.Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
When trying to understand what kind of person we are, we first watch what we do and feel and then deduce our nature from this. This means that the first step is to experience physiological arousal. We then try to find a label to explain our feelings, usually by looking at what we are doing and what else is happening at the time of the arousal. Thus we don’t just feel angry, happy or whatever: we experience feeling and then decide what they mean.
The sequence thus is as follows:
Event ==> arousal ==> reasoning ==> emotion
This is notable as it places emotion as a cognitive act (albeit subconscious) rather than a deeper state (this is the place of arousal).
Example
When we are feeling unwell, we often will deduce the illness from the symptoms. From then on, hypochondria can take hold and further symptoms psychosomatically appear to confirm our conclusions.
III. Opponent-Process Theory
We have pairs of emotions that act in opposing pairs, such as happiness and sadness, fear and relief, pleasure and pain. When one of these is experienced, the other is temporarily suppressed. This opposite emotion, however, is likely to re-emerge strongly and may curtail or interact with the initial emotion.
Thus activating one emotion also activates its opposite and they interact as a linked pair.To some extent, this can be used to explain drug use and other addictive behavior, as the pleasure of the high is used to suppress the pain of withdrawal.
Sometimes these two conflicting emotions may be felt at the same time as the second emotion intrudes before the first emotion wanes. The result is a confusing combined experience of two emotions being felt at the same time that normally are mutually exclusive. Thus we can feel happy-sad, scared-relieved, love-hate, etc. This can be unpleasant but as an experiential thrill it can also have a strangely enjoyable element (and seems to be a basis of excitement).
Example
§ A person buys something to cheer themselves up but later feels guilty at having spent so much. So they buy something else to cheer up again.
§ A thrill seeker goes rafting. The excitement of the journey is a mix of fear of the next rapids and relief at having survived the last one.
IV. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
When a stimulating event happens, we feel emotions and physiological changes (such as muscular tension, sweating, etc.) at the same time.
The sequence thus is as follows:
Event ==> Simultaneous arousal and emotion
In neurobiological terms, the thalamus receives a signal and relays this both to the amygdala, which is connected with emotion. The body then gets signals via the autonomic nervous system to tense muscles, etc.This was a refutation of the James-Lange theory (which proposed that emotions followed arousal) by Cannon and Bard in the late 1920s.
Example
I see a bear. I feel afraid. I tense in readiness to run away.
V. Cognitive Appraisal Theories of Emotion
In the absence of physiological arousal, we decide what to feel after interpreting or explaining what has just happened. Two things are important in this: whether we interpret the event as good or bad for us, and what we believe is the cause of the event.
The sequence thus is as follows:
Event ==> thinking ==> Simultaneous arousal and emotion
This challenges the two-factor separation of arousal and emotion, supporting the Cannon and Bard theory albeit with the addition of the thinking step.
In primary appraisal, we consider how the situation affects our personal well-being. In secondary appraisal we consider how we might cope with the situation.This is sometimes also called Lazarus Theory.
Example
When a colleague gets promoted, I might feel resentful if I think I deserve the promotion more than they do.

PERSONALITY
Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations (Ryckman, 2004). The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which means mask. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention employed to represent or typify that character.

Determinants of Personality
· Physiological (Biological) Factors
Gender, age, race, height, weight build
· Early childhood factors
Positive & negative aspects of upbringing affect personality
· Environmental (Situational) Factors
Such factors as education, income, employment, home etc.

I. Erikson's Developmental Stage Theory
Eric Erikson investigated and developed a stage theory about how children grow and develop psychosocial skills.
Level
Name
Characteristics
Stage 1
Trust vs. mistrust
(infant)
A child will only learn trust if its mother meets the child's deep need for attention and affection.
Stage 2

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
(around age 3)
If the exploring child receives encouragement in a search for autonomy, the child will learn trust, otherwise they learn shame and doubt.
Stage 3
Initiative vs. guilt
(around age 4)
If the questioning child is encouraged in their ideas and games, the child will gain confidence or otherwise feel guilty about initiating things.
Stage 4
Industry vs. authority
(at school)
If encouraged and praised by teachers, the child will increase efforts to learn. If always criticized, the child will learn to feel inferior.
Stage 5
Identity vs. role confusion
(from age 12)
If the child's identity has been reinforce up to puberty, the chiild will handle it well. If not, there is a frightening identity crisis.
Stage 6
Intimacy vs. isolation
(around middle age)
Identity crises may occur later in life if people cannot or do no relate to others.
II. Freud's Psychosexual Stage Theory
Freud divides human personality into three significant components: the ego, superego, and id. The id acts according to the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification of its needs regardless of external environment; the ego then must emerge in order to realistically meet the wishes and demands of the id in accordance with the outside world, adhering to the reality principle. Finally, the superego inculcates moral judgment and societal rules upon the ego, thus forcing the demands of the id to be met not only realistically but morally. The superego is the last function of the personality to develop, and is the embodiment of parental/social ideals established during childhood. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of these three components
The channeling and release of sexual (libidal) and aggressive energies, which ensues from the "Eros" (sex; instinctual self-preservation) and "Thanatos" (death; instinctual self-annihilation) drives respectively, are major components of his theory. It is important to note Freud's broad understanding of sexuality included all kinds of pleasurable feelings experienced by the human body.
Freud proposed five psychosexual stages of personality development. He believed adult personality is dependent upon early childhood experiences and largely determined by age five.Fixations that develop during the Infantile stage contribute to adult personality and behavior.
Sigmund Freud developed a theory of how our sexuality starts from a very young ages and develops through various fixations. If these stages are not psychologically completed and released, we can be trapped by them and they may lead to various defense mechanisms to avoid the anxiety produced from the conflict in and leaving of the stage.
The stages
Age
Name
Pleasure source
Conflict
0-2
Oral
Mouth: sucking, biting, swallowing
Weaning away from mother's breast
2-4
Anal
Anus: defecating or retaining faeces
Toilet training
4-5
Phallic
Genitals
Oedipus (boys), Electra (girls)
6-puberty
Latency
Sexual urges sublimated into sports and hobbies. Same-sex friends also help avoid sexual feelings.

puberty onward
Genital
Physical sexual changes reawaken repressed needs.
Direct sexual feelings towards others lead to sexual gratification.
Social rules
Fixation
Strong conflict can fixate people at early stages.
Oral fixation
Oral fixation has two possible outcomes.
The Oral receptive personality is preoccupied with eating/drinking and reduces tension through oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails. They are generally passive, needy and sensitive to rejection. They will easily 'swallow' other people's ideas.
The Oral aggressive personality is hostile and verbally abusive to others, using mouth-based aggression.
Anal fixation
Anal fixation, which may be caused by too much punishment during toilet training, has two possible outcomes.
The Anal retentive personality is stingy, with a compulsive seeking of order and tidiness. The person is generally stubborn and perfectionist.
The Anal expulsive personality is an opposite of the Anal retentive personality, and has a lack of self control, being generally messy and careless.
Phallic fixation
At the age of 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, boys experience the Oedipus Complex whilst girls experience the Electra conflict, which is a process through which they learn to identify with the same gender parent by acting as much like that parent as possible.
Boys suffer a castration anxiety, where the son believes his father knows about his desire for his mother and hence fears his father will castrate him. He thus represses his desire and defensively identifies with his father.
Girls suffer a penis envy, where the daughter is initially attached to her mother, but then a shift of attachment occurs when she realizes she lacks a penis. She desires her father whom she sees as a means to obtain a penis substitute (a child). She then represses her desire for her father and incorporates the values of her mother and accepts her inherent 'inferiority' in society.
III. Piaget's Stage Theory
Jean Piaget was one of the 20th century's most influential figures in child development and learning, and identified the following stages of development.
Age
Period
Characteristics
0-2
Sensory-motor
The infant learns to differentiate between itself and other objects within its environment, learning the difference between 'me' and 'not me'.
2-4
Pre-operational thought
The child is still very egocentric, but now classifies objects in simple ways - particularly by individual important features.
4-7
Intuitive
The child now classifies things more generally, but is not aware of the classes that he or she uses.
7-11
Concrete operations
Here, the child can use logical operations, such as reversal, deliberate classification and serialization.
11-15
Formal operations
Now things become more conceptual as the child is able to think in terms of abstract ideas.
Piaget developed this theory after noticing that his 7-month-old daughter, Jacqueline, did not look further for a rubber duck that 'disappeared' behind a fold in the sheets. He also noticed that she started looking for hidden objects around 9 months. This triggered a series of experiments to discover how children learn and when they make significant breakthroughs.
IV. Social Learning Theory
Although we learn by our own trial and error, we also perform much learning by watching other people. It is, after all, safer to let others make the mistakes. When the behavior makes sense, we go through it in our minds then try it for ourselves.
When we succeed, we become more confident (self-efficacy). As we interact with our environment, it becomes a two-way process: as we change it, it changes us (reciprocal determinism).
Learning is thus a combination of watching, thinking and trying. We learn most from people with whom we identify. When younger this is parents. Later it is peers. Attractive and famous people also are effective, as do those in authority. Learning has a an 'thrill' or 'aha' aspect, which reduces as we become competent. Thus, when we succeed, we raise the bar of targeted performance. Also, when we fail, we set our sights lower.
Example
Advertisements are prime examples of Social Learning Theory. We watch them, then copy them
V. Big Five Theory
The Big Five factors and their constituent traits can be summarized as follows:
Openness - appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience.
Conscientiousness - a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior.
Extraversion - energy, positive emotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others.
Agreeableness - a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
Neuroticism/Emotional Stability - a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability; sometimes called emotional instability.
When scored for individual feedback, these traits are frequently presented as percentile scores. For example, a Conscientiousness rating in the 80th percentile indicates a relatively strong sense of responsibility and orderliness, whereas an Extraversion rating in the 5th percentile indicates an exceptional need for solitude and quiet.
Although these trait clusters are statistical aggregates, exceptions may exist on individual personality profiles. On average, people who register high in Openness are intellectually curious, open to emotion, interested in art, and willing to try new things. A particular individual, however, may have a high overall Openness score and be interested in learning and exploring new cultures. Yet he or she might have no great interest in art or poetry. Situational influences also exist, as even extraverts may occasionally need time away from people.
VI. The 16 Personality Factors (16 PF)- were multivariately-derived by psychologist Raymond Cattell
Raymond Cattell's 16 Personality Factors (16 PF)
Descriptors of Low Range
Primary Factor
Descriptors of High Range
Impersonal, distant, cool, reserved, detached, formal, aloof (Schizothymia)
Warmth(1)
Warm, outgoing, attentive to others, kindly, easy going, participating, likes people (Affectothymia)
Concrete thinking, lower general mental capacity, less intelligent, unable to handle abstract problems (Lower Scholastic Mental Capacity)
Reasoning(2)
Abstract-thinking, more intelligent, bright, higher general mental capacity, fast learner (Higher Scholastic Mental Capacity)
Reactive emotionally, changeable, affected by feelings, emotionally less stable, easily upset (Lower Ego Strength)
Emotional Stability(3)
Emotionally stable, adaptive, mature, faces reality calmly (Higher Ego Strength)
Deferential, cooperative, avoids conflict, submissive, humble, obedient, easily led, docile, accommodating (Submissiveness)
Dominance (4)
Dominant, forceful, assertive, aggressive, competitive, stubborn, bossy (Dominance)
Serious, restrained, prudent, taciturn, introspective, silent (Desurgency)
Liveliness(5)
Lively, animated, spontaneous, enthusiastic, happy go lucky, cheerful, expressive, impulsive (Surgency)
Expedient, nonconforming, disregards rules, self indulgent (Low Super Ego Strength)
Rule Consciousness(6)
Rule-conscious, dutiful, conscientious, conforming, moralistic, staid, rule bound (High Super Ego Strength)
Shy, threat-sensitive, timid, hesitant, intimidated (Threctia)
Social Boldness(7)
Socially bold, venturesome, thick skinned, uninhibited (Parmia)
Utilitarian, objective, unsentimental, tough minded, self-reliant, no-nonsense, rough (Harria)
Sensitivity(8)
Sensitive, aesthetic, sentimental, tender minded, intuitive, refined (Premsia)
Trusting, unsuspecting, accepting, unconditional, easy (Alaxia)
Vigilance(9)
Vigilant, suspicious, skeptical, distrustful, oppositional (Protension)
Grounded, practical, prosaic, solution oriented, steady, conventional (Praxernia)
Abstractedness(10)
Abstract, imaginative, absent minded, impractical, absorbed in ideas (Autia)
Forthright, genuine, artless, open, guileless, naive, unpretentious, involved (Artlessness)
Privateness(11)
Private, discreet, nondisclosing, shrewd, polished, worldly, astute, diplomatic (Shrewdness)
Self-Assured, unworried, complacent, secure, free of guilt, confident, self satisfied (Untroubled)
Apprehension (12)
Apprehensive, self doubting, worried, guilt prone, insecure, worrying, self blaming (Guilt Proneness)
Traditional, attached to familiar, conservative, respecting traditional ideas (Conservatism)
Openness to Change(13)
Open to change, experimental, liberal, analytical, critical, free thinking, flexibility (Radicalism)
Group-oriented, affiliative, a joiner and follower dependent (Group Adherence)
Self-Reliance (14)
Self-reliant, solitary, resourceful, individualistic, self sufficient (Self-Sufficiency)
Tolerates disorder, unexacting, flexible, undisciplined, lax, self-conflict, impulsive, careless of social rules, uncontrolled (Low Integration)
Perfectionism(15)
Perfectionistic, organized, compulsive, self-disciplined, socially precise, exacting will power, control, self-sentimental (High Self-Concept Control)
Relaxed, placid, tranquil, torpid, patient, composed low drive (Low Ergic Tension)
Tension (16)
Tense, high energy, impatient, driven, frustrated, over wrought, time driven. (High Ergic Tension)

Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors, as opposed to the so-called "Big Five" factors which he considered global factors. Among these there are primary factors (surface traits) which correlate with global factors and could therefore be considered subfactors within them. And factor 13 to 16 are source traits which relate to the behavioural aspect.
VII. Gordon Allport's Psychological Trait Theory
According to Allport's Personality-trait Theory, the individual's personality traits are the key to the uniqueness and consistency of his or her behavior. He organized individual personality into three levels of traits.
1. Cardinal trait/ Unique Trait—This is the trait that dominates and shapes a person's behavior. These are rare as most people lack a single theme that shapes their lives. Allport said too fully understand individuals, we need to use idiographic methods. Unique traits, not common traits are the real units of personality, which exist within an individual and have status as psychophysical realities. Allport conceived personal dispositions in terms of a person's goals, motives, or styles-- a generalized neuropsychic structure that is peculiar to the individual. Unique traits are individualized adaptive entities, unique to each person. Personal dispositions that exert an overwhelming influence on behavior are termed cardinal dispositions. Central dispositions-- qualities that are less central, but nevertheless important aspects of the individual.
2. Central trait/ Common Trait—This is a general characteristic found in some degree in every person. These are the basic building blocks that shape most of our behavior although they are not as overwhelming as cardinal traits. An example of a central trait would be honesty. Traits that people in a population share as a basic dimension. Allport used the term proprium to refer to the core of personality-- one's self. By this he meant that there are layers within the human psyche.
3. Secondary trait/Surface Trait—These are characteristics seen only in certain circumstances. They must be included to provide a complete picture of human complexity. These can be further classified as: a. Temperament Traits- concerned with how a person behaves. Developed the 16PF questionnaire to measure "normal" source traits. b. Dynamic Traits- motivational including attitudes, ergs, and sems.
Attitude-- refers to a specific course of action in response to a given situation.
Ergs-- Are innate motivational traits that are comparable to animal instincts.
Sems-- socially acquired dynamic traits that can satisfy several ergs at the same time.
Allport was one of the first researchers to draw a distinction between "motive" and "drive." He suggested that a drive formed as a reaction to a motive may out-grow the motive as a reason. The drive then is autonomous and distinct from the motive, whether it is instinct or any other. Allport gives the example of a man who seeks to perfect his task or craft. His reasons may be a sense of inferiority ingrained in his childhood but his diligence in his work and the motive it acquires later on is a need to excel in his chosen profession.
Allport's work on intrinsic and extrinsic approaches to religion laid the foundation for many subsequent studies of religious styles, and his critiques of behaviorism set a pattern that is found today is some of current critiques of the medical model in psychology.
VIII. Carl Rogers theory of personality

Evolved out of his work as a clinical psychologist and developed as an offshoot of his theory of client-centred (later called person-centred) therapy. He was first and foremost a therapist, with an abiding respect for the dignity of persons and an interest in persons as subjects rather than objects. Rogers approach to the study of persons is phenomenological and idiographic and humanistic. The key features of Rogers theory focuses on: a) view of self, b) his view of the human condition and c) his rationale for improvement of this condition. It is a valuable contribution to the study of persons, recognizing agency, free will and the importance of the self.

1. Self-Actualizing Tendency
A distinctly psychological form of the actualizing tendency related to this "self" is the "self-actualizing tendency". It involves the actualization of that portion of experience symbolized in the self. It can be seen as a push to experience oneself in a way that is consistent with one's conscious view of what one is. Connected to the development of the self-concept and self-actualization are secondary needs (assumed to likely be learned in childhood): the "need for positive regard from others" and "the need for positive self-regard", an internalized version of the previous. These lead to the favouring of behaviour that is consistent with the person's self-concept.

Actualizing Tendency
Rogers (1959) maintains that the human "organism" has an underlying “actualizing tendency", which aims to develop all capacities in ways that maintain or enhance the organism and move it toward autonomy. This tendency is directional, constructive and present in all living things. The actualizing tendency can be suppressed but can never be destroyed without the destruction of the organism. The concept of the actualizing tendency is the only motive force in the theory. It encompasses all motivations; tension, need, or drive reductions; and creative as well as pleasure-seeking tendencies. Only the organism as a whole has this tendency, parts of it (such as the self) do not.

Self
The human organism's "phenomenal field" includes all experiences available at a given moment, both conscious and unconscious. As development occurs, a portion of this field becomes differentiated and this becomes the person's "self". The "self" is a central construct in this theory. It develops through interactions with others and involves awareness of being and functioning. The self-concept is "the organized set of characteristics that the individual perceives as peculiar to himself/herself”. It is based largely on the social evaluations he/she has experienced.

2. Organismic Valuing and Conditions of Worth

When significant others in the person's world (usually parents) provide positive regard that is conditional, rather than unconditional, the person introjects the desired values, making them his/her own, and acquires "conditions of worth". The self-concept then becomes based on these standards of value rather than on organismic evaluation. These conditions of worth disturb the "organismic valuing process", which is a fluid, ongoing process whereby experiences are accurately symbolized and valued according to optimal enhancement of the organism and self. The need for positive self-regard leads to a selective perception of experience in terms of the conditions of worth that now exist. Those experiences in accordance with these conditions are perceived and symbolized accurately in awareness, while those that are not are distorted or denied into awareness. This leads to an "incongruence" between the self as perceived and the actual experience of the organism, resulting in possible confusion, tension, and maladaptive behaviour. Such estrangement is the common human condition. Experiences can be perceived as threatening without conscious awareness via "subception", a form of discrimination without awareness that can result in anxiety.

3. Fully Functioning Person and the Self

Theoretically, an individual may develop optimally and avoid the previously described outcomes if they experience only "unconditional positive regard" and no conditions of worth develop. The needs for positive regard from others and positive self-regard would match organismic evaluation and there would be congruence between self and experience, with full psychological adjustment as a result. This ideal human condition is embodied in the "fully functioning person" who is open to experience able to live existentially, is trusting in his/her own organism, expresses feelings freely, acts independently, is creative and lives a richer life; "the good life" (Rogers, 1961). It should be noted that; "The good life is a process not a state of being. It is a direction, not a destination". For the vast majority of persons who do not have an optimal childhood there is hope for change and development toward psychological maturity via therapy, in which the aim is to dissolve the conditions of worth, achieve a self congruent with experience and restore the organismic valuing process.


In Rogers' view personality change is certainly possible and is further a necessary part of growth. However, he notes that self-acceptance is a prerequisite. Rogers originally failed to recognize the importance of "self". When he began his work he had the "settled notion that the "self" was a vague, ambiguous, scientifically meaningless term which had gone out of the psychologist's vocabulary with the departure of the introspectionists". However, through his work with clients he came to appreciate the importance of self. The "self" is described as: the organized, consistent, conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the "I" or "me" and the perceptions of the relationships of the "I" or "me" to others and to various aspects of life, together with the values attached to these perceptions.

IX. Carl Jung’s Type Theory.
He believed that there were two basic kinds of "functions" which humans used in their lives: how we take in information (how we "perceive" things), and how we make decisions. He believed that within these two categories, there were two opposite ways of functioning. We can perceive information via 1) our senses, or 2) our intuition. We can make decisions based on 1) objective logic, or 2) subjective feelings. Jung believed that we all use these four functions in our lives, but that each individual uses the different functions with a varying amount of success and frequency. He believed that we could identify an order of preference for these functions within individuals. The function which someone uses most frequently is their "dominant" function. The dominant function is supported by an auxiliary (2nd) function, tertiary (3rd) function, and inferior (4th) function. He asserted that individuals are either "extraverted" or "introverted" in their dominant function. He felt that the dominant function was so important, that it overshadowed all of the other functions in terms of defining personality type.
In addition to the two attitudes of extraversion and introversion, Jung also developed a framework of 'four functional types'.Jung's Four Functions of the psyche are:
thinking and
feeling
which he said are the functions that enable us to decide and judge, (Jung called these 'Rational') and
sensation and
intuition
which Jung said are the functions that enable us to gather information and perceive (Jung called these 'Irrational').
Thinking
what something is
meaning and understanding
analytic, objective, principles, standards, criteria,
both are opposite reasoning and judging functions - people consciously 'prefer' one or the other - Jung called these functions 'rational'
Feeling
whether it's good or not
weight and value
subjective, personal, valuing intimacy, humane
Sensation
something exists
sensual perception
realistic, down-to-earth, practical, sensible
both are opposite perceiving functions - people consciously 'prefer' one or the other - Jung called these functions 'irrational'
Intuition
where it's from and where it's going
possibilities and atmosphere
hunches, future, speculative, fantasy, imaginative

The combination of our four "preferences" defines our personality type. Although everybody functions across the entire spectrum of the preferences, each individual has a natural preference, which leans in one direction or the other within the four categories. The developed theory today is that every individual has a primary mode of operation within four categories:
1. Our flow of energy - Our Flow of Energy defines how we receive the essential part of our stimulation. Do we receive it from within ourselves (Introverted) or from external sources (Extraverted)? Is our dominant function focused externally or internally?
2. How we take in information - The topic of how we Take in Information deals with our preferred method of taking in and absorbing information. Do we trust our five senses (Sensing) to take in information, or do we rely on our instincts (iNtuitive)?
3. How we prefer to make decisions - The third type of preference, how we prefer to Make Decisions, refers to whether we are prone to decide things based on logic and objective consideration (Thinking), or based on our personal, subjective value systems (Feeling).
4. The basic day-to-day lifestyle that we prefer
Within each of these categories, we "prefer" to be either:
1. Extraverted or Introverted
2. Sensing or intuitive
3. Thinking or Feeling
4. Judging or Perceiving
Therefore, Jung defined eight personality types:
1. Extraverted Sensing (modern types: ESFP, ESTP)
2. Introverted Sensing (modern types: ISTJ, ISFJ)
3. Extraverted Intuition (modern types: ENFP, ENTP)
4. Introverted Intuition (modern types: INFJ, INTJ)
5. Extraverted Thinking (modern types: ESTJ, ENTJ)
6. Introverted Thinking (modern types: ISTP, INTP)
7. Extraverted Feeling (modern types: ESFJ, ENFJ)
8. Introverted Feeling (modern types: INFP, ISFP)
Type name
Type characteristics
Extraverted Thinking
analytical, strategic, plans, implements, organises others
Introverted Thinking
contemplative, discovering, theoretical, seeks self-knowledge
Extraverted Feeling
sociable, sentimental, seeks personal and social success
Introverted Feeling
inaccessible, enigmatic, self-contained, seeks inner intensity
Extraverted Sensation
practical, hands-on, pleasure-seeking, hard-headed
Introverted Sensation
intense, obsessive, detached, connoisseur, expert
Extraverted Intuition
adventurous, innovative, seeks novelty, proposes change
Introverted Intuition
idealistic, visionary, esoteric, mystical, aloof
X. Type A and Type B
A simple division of preference or personality type is into Type A and Type B, which is based broadly on anxiety and stress levels.
Type A
The Type A personality generally lives at a higher stress level. This is driven by
They enjoy achievement of goals, with greater enjoyment in achieving of more difficult goals. They are thus constantly working hard to achieve these.
They find it difficult to stop, even when they have achieved goals.
They feel the pressure of time, constantly working flat out.
They are highly competitive and will, if necessary create competition.
They hate failure and will work hard to avoid it.
They are generally pretty fit and often well-educated (a result of their anxiety).
Type B
The Type B personality generally lives at a lower stress level and are typically:
They work steadily, enjoying achievements but not becoming stressed when they are not achieved.
When faced with competition, they do not mind losing and either enjoy the game or back down.
They may be creative and enjoy exploring ideas and concepts.
They are often reflective, thinking about the outer and inner worlds.

What is a Group?
A group is:
“Two or more people who share a common definition and evaluation of themselves and behave in accordance with such a definition”.
A collection of people who interact with one another, accept rights and obligations as members and who share a common identity.
Criteria for a group include:
Formal social structure
Face-to-face interaction
2 or more persons
Common fate
Common goals
Interdependence
Self-definition as group members
Recognition by others
Nature of Groups
§ Help organizations accomplish important tasks.
§ Help to maintain a high-quality workforce by satisfying members’ needs.
§ Effective groups achieve high levels of:
–Task performance.
–Member’s satisfaction.
–Team viability.
§ Synergy –With synergy, groups accomplish more than the total of the members’ individual capabilities.
§ When there is no clear expert in a particular problem or task because of information sharing in group, tasks become easier resulting in problem solving and taking better decisions.
§ Results in creativity and innovation
§

§

Characteristics of Group

1. Role Structure
2. Norms
3. Leadership
4. Status
5. Task
6. Cohesiveness - Groups differ in their cohesiveness, “the degree to which members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group.” Cohesiveness is important because it has been found to be related to the group’s productivity.

The relationship of cohesiveness and productivity depends on the performance-related norms established by the group:

· If performance-related norms are high, a cohesive group will be more productive.

· If cohesiveness is high and performance norms are low, productivity will be low.
. How to encourage group cohesiveness:

· Make the group smaller.
· Encourage agreement with group goals.
· Increase the time members spend together.
· Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership in the group.
· Stimulate competition with other groups.
· Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members.
· Physically isolate the group.

Group Structure

1. Formal Leadership

· Almost every work group has a formal leader.
· Typically identified by title
· This leader can play an important part in the group’s success—Chapter 11 & 12 reviews the research.

2. Roles

· All group members are actors, each playing a role.
· “A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.”
· We are required to play a number of diverse roles, both on and off our jobs. Many of these roles are compatible; some create conflicts.
· Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals.

a) Role identity

· There are certain attitudes and actual behaviors consistent with a role, and they create the role identity.
· People have the ability to shift roles rapidly when they recognize that the situation and its demands clearly require major changes.

b) Role perception

· One’s view of how one is supposed to act in a given situation is a role perception.
· We get these perceptions from stimuli all around us—friends, books, movies, television.
· The primary reason that apprenticeship programs exist is to allow beginners to watch an “expert,” so that they can learn to act as they are supposed to.

c) Role expectations

· How others believe you should act in a given situation
· How you behave is determined to a large extent by the role defined in the context in which you are acting.
· When role expectations are concentrated into generalized categories, we have role stereotypes.
· The psychological contract is an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and their employer.

a. It sets out mutual expectations—what management expects from workers, and vice versa.
b. It defines the behavioral expectations that go with every role.
c. If role expectations as implied are not met, expect negative repercussions from the offended party.

d) Role conflict:

· “When an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations”
· It exists when compliance with one role requirement may make more difficult the compliance with another.
· All of us have faced and will continue to face role conflicts. The critical issue is how conflicts imposed by divergent expectations impact on behavior.
· They increase internal tension and frustration.

3. Norms

All groups have norms—“acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the group’s members.” Norms tell members what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances.

A work group’s norms are unique, yet there are still some common classes of norms.

· Performance norms are probably the most common class of norms.

a. Explicit cues on how hard they should work, how to get the job done, their level of output, appropriate levels of tardiness, and the like
b. These norms are extremely powerful in affecting an individual employee’s performance.

· Appearance norms include things like appropriate dress, loyalty to the work group or organization, when to look busy, and when it is acceptable to goof off.

· Social arrangement norms come from informal work groups and primarily regulate social interactions within the group.


· Allocation of resources norms can originate in the group or in the organization.

4. Status

Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. We live in a class-structured society despite all attempts to make it more egalitarian.

Status and norms:

· High-status members of groups often are given more freedom to deviate from norms than other group members.

· High-status people also are better able to resist conformity pressures.

· The previous findings explain why many star athletes, famous actors, top-performing salespeople, and outstanding academics seem oblivious to appearance or social norms.
Status equity:

· When inequity is perceived, it creates disequilibrium that results in corrective behavior.

· The trappings of formal positions are also important elements in maintaining equity. Employees expect what an individual has and receives to be congruent with his/her status. For example: pay, office space, etc.

· Groups generally agree within themselves on status criteria.

· Individuals can find themselves in a conflict situation when they move between groups whose status criteria are different or when they join groups whose members have heterogeneous backgrounds.

Status and culture:

· Cultural differences affect status. For example, the French are highly status conscious.

· Countries differ on the criteria that create status:

a. Status for Latin Americans and Asians tends to be derived from family position and formal roles held in organizations.
b. In the United States and Australia, it tends to be bestowed more on accomplishments.

· Make sure you understand who and what holds status when interacting with people from a different culture than your own.

5. Size

The size of a group affects the group’s overall behavior, but the effect depends on the dependent variables:

· Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than are larger ones.

· If the group is engaged in problem solving, large groups consistently do better.

· Large groups—a dozen or more members—are good for gaining diverse input.

· Smaller groups—seven members—are better at doing something productive with that input.


6. Composition

1. Most group activities require a variety of skills and knowledge.

2. Research studies generally substantiate that heterogeneous groups—those composed of dissimilar individuals—are more likely to have diverse abilities and information and should be more effective, especially on cognitive, creativity-demanding tasks.

3. The group may be more conflict laden and less expedient. Essentially, diversity promotes conflict, which stimulates creativity, which leads to improved decision making.

4. Diversity created by racial or national differences interferes with group processes, at least in the short term. Why?

· Cultural diversity seems to be an asset on tasks that call for a variety of viewpoints.

· Such groups have more difficulty in learning to work with each other and solving problems.
· These difficulties seem to dissipate with time as it takes time for diverse groups to learn how to work through disagreements and different approaches to solving problems.

5. An offshoot of the composition issue is the degree to which members of a group share a common demographic attribute and the impact of this attribute on turnover.

6. Groups and organizations are composed of cohorts, which we define as “individuals who hold a common attribute.”

7. Group demography should help us to predict turnover:

· Turnover will be greater among those with dissimilar experiences because communication is more difficult.

· Conflict and power struggles are more likely, and more severe when they occur.

· This makes group membership less attractive, so employees are more likely to quit.

8. Studies have sought to test this thesis, and the evidence is quite encouraging:

· Work groups, where a large portion of members entered at the same time, have lowered turnover.

· Where there are large gaps between cohorts, turnover is higher.

· Discontinuities or bulges in the group’s date-of-entry distribution are likely to result in a higher turnover rate within that group.

9. The implication is that the composition of a group may be an important predictor of turnover.

10. We can speculate that variance within a group in respect to attributes other than date of entry, such as social background, gender differences, and levels of education, might similarly create discontinuities or bulges in the distribution that will encourage some members to leave.


Types of Groups

1. Social Groups - While all groups will have both social and task dimensions, some groups are predominantly social in their orientation. Examples of these groups would be families and social clubs. These groups provide for our safety and solidarity needs and they help us develop self-esteem.

2. Work Groups - Work groups function to complete a particular task. In a work group, the task dimension is emphasized. The group members pool their expertise to accomplish the task. Examples of this would be workplaces, campus organizations, or juries. A task group’s boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationships. There are several types of work groups, based on the work of Ivan Steiner:
Additive Work Group: All group members perform the same activity and pool their results at the end. An example of this would be gathering signatures for a petition drive.
Conjunctive Work Group: Group members perform different, but related, tasks that allow for the completion of a goal. Every group member must complete their task in order for the group task to be completed. An example of this would be an assembly line, in which each worker performs tasks that together build a completed car.
Disjunctive Task: Members meet to determine the best alternative for a problem or issue. There are two types of disjunctive tasks:
Judgment Task: Group members must choose one correct answer from all alternatives.
Decision-Making Task: Group members must choose the best alternative from a set of options. There is no one correct answer for a decision-making group.
3. Contrived or Emergent Groups - Some groups form spontaneously, such as a group of friends. Other groups are contrived, that is, they are formed for a specific purpose. Organized clubs, social groups, or committees are contrived groups.
4. Informal groups - can, have a short lifetime ranging from a few minutes to the class periodare generally created quickly or ad hoc, (e.g., the instructor may say "discuss this concept" or "discuss this question with your neighbors"), have little structure or format,have new group members with each new class day, are especially useful during lectures because it can break the lecture in mini-lectures, and may provide a quick check on student comprehension.
5. Formal groups - last several days to several weeks, require more planning as to the size and composition of the group, have greater structure, have a specific purpose (e.g., a particular task to accomplish), and have the same group members throughout its existence.
6. Command groups are dictated by the formal organization.
a. The organization chart determines a command group.
b. Composed of direct reports to a given manager


7. An interest group. People who affiliate to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned.

a. Employees who band together to have their vacation schedules altered
b. Friendship groups often develop because the individual members have one or more common characteristics.
c. Social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work situation, can be based on similar age or ethnic heritage.

STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Tuckman described the four distinct stages that a group can as it comes together and starts to operate. This process can be subconscious, although an understanding of the stages can help a group reach effectiveness more quickly and less painfully.
Stage 1: Forming
Individual behaviour is driven by a desire to be accepted by the others, and avoid controversy or conflict. Serious issues and feelings are avoided, and people focus on being busy with routines, such as team organisation, who does what, when to meet, etc. But individuals are also gathering information and impressions - about each other, and about the scope of the task and how to approach it. This is a comfortable stage to be in, but the avoidance of conflict and threat means that not much actually gets done
Stage 2: Storming
Individuals in the group can only remain nice to each other for so long, as important issues start to be addressed. Some people's patience will break early, and minor confrontations will arise that are quickly dealt with or glossed over. These may relate to the work of the group itself, or to roles and responsibilities within the group. Some will observe that it's good to be getting into the real issues, whilst others will wish to remain in the comfort and security of stage 1. Depending on the culture of the organisation and individuals, the conflict will be more or less suppressed, but it'll be there, under the surface. To deal with the conflict, individuals may feel they are winning or losing battles, and will look for structural clarity and rules to prevent the conflict persisting.
Stage 3: Norming
As Stage 2 evolves, the "rules of engagement" for the group become established, and the scope of the group's tasks or responsibilities are clear and agreed. Having had their arguments, they now understand each other better, and can appreciate each other's skills and experience. Individuals listen to each other, appreciate and support each other, and are prepared to change pre-conceived views: they feel they're part of a cohesive, effective group. However, individuals have had to work hard to attain this stage, and may resist any pressure to change - especially from the outside - for fear that the group will break up, or revert to a storm.
Stage 4: Performing
Not all groups reach this stage, characterised by a state of interdependence and flexibility. Everyone knows each other well enough to be able to work together, and trusts each other enough to allow independent activity. Roles and responsibilities change according to need in an almost seamless way. Group identity, loyalty and morale are all high, and everyone is equally task-orientated and people-orientated. This high degree of comfort means that all the energy of the group can be directed towards the task(s) in hand.
Ten years after first describing the four stages, Bruce Tuckman revisited his original work and described another, final, stage:
Stage 5: Adjourning
This is about completion and disengagement, both from the tasks and the group members. Individuals will be proud of having achieved much and glad to have been part of such an enjoyable group. They need to recognise what they've done, and consciously move on. Some authors describe stage 5 as "Deforming and Mourning", recognising the sense of loss felt by group members.
Tuckman's original work simply described the way he had observed groups evolve, whether they were conscious of it or not. But for us the real value is in recognising where a group is in the process, and helping it to move to the Perform stage. In the real world, groups are often forming and changing, and each time that happens, they can move to a different Tuckman Stage. A group might be happily Norming or Performing, but a new member might force them back into Storming. Seasoned leaders will be ready for this, and will help the group get back to Performing as quickly as possible.
Many work groups live in the comfort of Norming, and are fearful of moving back into Storming, or forward into Performing. This will govern their behaviour towards each other, and especially their reaction to change.


Foundations of Group Effectiveness
From a systems perspective, group inputs are the foundation for all subsequent group action.

1. Group Tasks
The size-performance relationship is moderated by the group’s task requirements.Factors effecting group effectiveness when performing tasks:

· The impact of group processes on the group’s performance and member satisfaction is also moderated by the tasks that the group is doing.

· The evidence indicates that the complexity and interdependence of tasks influence the group’s effectiveness.

· Tasks can be generalized as either simple or complex. Complex tasks are ones that tend to be novel or non-routine.
· The more complex the task, the more the group will benefit from discussion of alternatives.

· If there is a high degree of interdependence among the tasks that group members must perform, they will need to interact more.

· For simple tasks that are routine and standardized, group members can rely on standardized operating procedures for doing the job.

· Tasks that have higher uncertainty—those that are complex and interdependent—require more information processing.

2) Goals, rewards, and resources-

Long-term performance accomplishments rely on:
•Appropriate goals.
•Well-designed reward systems.
•Adequate resources.


3) Technology.
–Provides the means to get work accomplished.
–The right technology must be available for the task at hand.
–Work-flow technology can affect the way group members interact.


4) Membership Characteristics/ Composition/ Diversity- As explained above in topic Group structure. Also the theory of FIRO- B explains this concept
•Identifies individual differences in how people relate to one another in groups.
•Based on needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection.
•Groups whose members have compatible characteristics are likely to be more effective.
•Groups whose members have incompatible characteristics are likely to be less effective.


5) Group Size - As explained above in topic Group structure.




Group Decision Making

Strengths of group decision-making:

· Groups generate more complete information and knowledge.
· They offer increased diversity of views.
· This opens up the opportunity for more approaches and alternatives to be considered.
· The evidence indicates that a group will almost always outperform even the best individual.
· Groups lead to increased acceptance of a solution.

Weaknesses of group decision-making:

· They are time consuming.
· There is conformity pressures in groups.
· Group discussion can be dominated by one or a few members.
· Group decisions suffer from ambiguous responsibility.


Techniques of Group Decision Making

1. Group Think - Groups sometimes fall into a style of thinking where the maintenance of the group’s cohesion and togetherness becomes all-important and results in very bad decision-making.Janis (1972) defines it as "a way of deliberating that group members use when their desire for unanimity overrides their motivation to assess all available plans of action."
The eight primary symptoms of groupthink are:
Illusions of invulnerability where the group think it is invincible and can do no wrong.
Collective efforts to rationalize or discount warnings.
Unquestioned belief in the moral correctness of the group.
Stereotyped views of the out-group, often as too evil, weak or stupid to be worth bothering with.
Self-censorship as people decide not to rock the boat.
Pressure to conform.
A shared illusion of unanimity (everyone always agrees with everyone else).
Protecting the group from contrary viewpoints, by self-appointed ‘mind-guards’.
Groupthink happens most often when the group is already cohesive, is isolated from conflicting opinions and where the leader is open and directive. The lack of a formal decision process is also common.Problem-solving and task-oriented groups are particularly susceptible.Resulting decisions are often based on incomplete information and fail to consider alternatives and risks.
Example
The most famous example of Groupthink is the presidential advisory group who almost led Kennedy into invading Cuba and potential nuclear war in the Bay of Pigs affair.
2. Nominal Group Technique - a face-to-face group process technique for gaining consensus. A typical application is in organizational planning when a group needs to agree priorities in order to assign resources and funds.
The benefit of the technique is that the group shares and discusses all issues before evaluation, with each group member participating equally in evaluation. The evaluation works with each participant "nominating" his or her priority issues, and then ranking them on a scale of, say, 1 to 10.
The nominal group technique is a decision making method for use among gropus of many sizes, who want to make their decision quickly, as by a vote, but want everyone's opinions taken into account (as opposed to traditional voting, where only the largest group is considered). The method of tallying is the difference. First, every member of the group gives their view of the solution, with a short explanation. Then, duplicate solutions are eliminated from the list of all solutions, and the members proceed to rank the solutions, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on. The numbers each solution receives are totaled, and the solution with the lowest (i.e. most favored) total ranking is selected as the final decision. There are variations on how this technique is used. For example, it can identify strengths versus areas in need of development, rather than be used as a decision-making voting alternative. Also, options do not always have to be ranked, but may be evaluated more subjectively.
3. Brainstorming - Brainstorming with a group of people is a powerful technique. Brainstorming creates new ideas, solves problems, motivates and develops teams. Brainstorming motivates because it involves members of a team in bigger management issues, and it gets a team working together. However, brainstorming is not simply a random activity. Brainstorming needs to be structured and it follows brainstorming rules. The brainstorming process is described below, for which you will need a flip-chart or alternative. This is crucial as Brainstorming needs to involve the team, which means that everyone must be able to see what's happening. Brainstorming places a significant burden on the facilitator to manage the process, people's involvement and sensitivities, and then to manage the follow up actions.
4. Delphi Technique - The Delphi Technique was originally conceived as a way to obtain the opinion of experts without necessarily bringing them together face to face. The Delphi Technique is based on the Hegelian Principle of achieving Oneness of Mind through a three step process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. In thesis and antithesis, all present their opinion or views on a given subject, establishing views and opposing views. In synthesis, opposites are brought together to form the new thesis. All participants are then to accept ownership of the new thesis and support it, changing their own views to align with the new thesis. Through a continual process of evolution, Oneness of Mind will supposedly occur.
5. Computer-mediated decision making- Electronic brainstorming through the use of special software and personal computers. The nominal group and Delphi techniques lend themselves to computer mediation.
6.
Devil’s Advocacy: individual or group given the role of critic
7. Quality Circles & quality Teams - A Quality Circle is a volunteer group composed of employees who meet to discuss workplace improvement, and make presentations to mangement with their ideas, especially relating to quality of output in order to improve the performance of the organization, and motivate and enrich the work of employees. Typical topics are improvingocuupational health and sfaety, improving product design, and improvement in manufacturing process. The ideal size of a quality circle is from eight to ten members.
Quality circles have the advantage of continuity; the circle remains intact from project to project.
8. Self-Managed teams - A team comprises a group of people linked in a common purpose. Teams are especially appropriate for conducting tasks that are high in complexity and have many interdependent subtasks. A group in itself does not necessarily constitute a team. Teams normally have members with complementary skills and generate synergy through a coordinated effort which allows each member to maximize his or her strengths and minimize his or her weaknesses.
Example could be a teams of sports players who can form (and re-form) to practice their craft.

Factors Effecting Group
1. Contextual factors
size
composition
task
resources and support
external recognition
2. Internal factors
Leadership
Task & maintenance functions
Task
Proposing/initiating
Building
Diagnosing
Giving & seeking Information
Evaluating
Decision making
Maintenance
Gate-keeping
Encouraging
Conflict resolution
Giving feedback
Dealing with feelings
Looking after physical needs
Interaction patterns
wheel
all channel
Motivation

Common problems of Group
Hidden agendas
Group anxiety
Groupthink
Illusion of invulnerability
Collective efforts to rationalize
Unquestioned belief in groups inherent morality
Stereotyped views of enemies
Direct pressure against members strong arguments
against stereotypes
against illusions
against commitments
Self-censorship
Shared illusion of unaninimity
Self appointed mind guards
· Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. A common stereotype about groups is that team spirit spurs individual effort and enhances overall productivity.
* In the late 1920s, a German psychologist named Max Ringelmann compared the results of individual and group performance on a rope-pulling task.

* Ringelmann’s results showed that groups of three people exerted a force only two-and-a-half times the average individual performance. Groups of eight collectively achieved less than four times the solo rate.

* Increases in group size are inversely related to individual performance.

Causes of social loafing:

· A belief that others in the group are not carrying their fair share.

· The dispersion of responsibility and the relationship between an individual’s input and the group’s output is clouded.

· There will be a reduction in efficiency where individuals think that their contribution cannot be measured.








Actual performance in a job is primarily determined by the effort spent. But it is also affected by the person’s ability to do the job and also by individual’s perception of what the required task is. So performance is the responsible factor that leads to intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards. These rewards, along with the equity of individual leads to satisfaction. Hence, satisfaction of the individual depends upon the fairness of the reward.












Attitude
Attitudes are:
Predispositions towards action.
About or towards people and things.
Evaluative of people, objects and ideas.
Made up of emotional reactions (affective), thoughts and beliefs (cognitive), and actions (behavioral) components.
Strength of attitude increases with accessibility and knowledge about the topic in question. Attitudes are often learned from other people and are often a defining characteristic of groups. It can also be genetic. A strong attitude is very resistant to change.
Attitudes are often shown through deliberate signals. As such, they act as warning systems which allow other people to avoid conflict or making a social faux pas.Attitudes are most easily changed through social influence and cognitive dissonance.
The Nature and Origin of Attitudes
• Social psychologists define an attitude as an enduring evaluation, positive or negative, of people, objects, or ideas.
• Attitudes consist of three components: affect, or the emotional reaction toward the attitude object; cognition, or the beliefs about it; and behavior, or the actions one takes with respect to it.
Where Do Attitudes Come From/Origin of attitude?
• Tesser (1993) suggests that some attitudes are linked to our genes. Evidence for this is based on the finding that identical twins raised apart (and not knowing of each other) have more similar attitudes to each other than do fraternal twins. Attitude similarity is probably mediated by similarity of temperament and personality.
• Even if there is a genetic component, social experience clearly plays a large role in shaping attitudes.
• Although all attitudes have the three components, any given attitude can be based more on one component than another.
1. Cognitively Based Attitudes
• Cognitively based attitudes are based primarily on a person’s beliefs about the properties of the attitude object; their function is “object appraisal,” meaning that we classify objects according to the rewards or punishments they provide.
2. Affectively Based Attitudes
• Affectively based attitudes are based more on people’s feelings and values than on their beliefs. Their function may be value-expressive. Thus, attitudes towards political candidates are generally more affectively than cognitively based.
• Other affectively based attitudes can be the result of a sensory reaction or of conditioning.
• Classical conditioning is learning by association (a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly experienced along with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus). Operant conditioning is the case whereby behaviors that people freely choose to perform increase or decrease in frequency, depending on whether they are followed by positive reinforcement or punishment (see Figure 7.1).
• Affectively based attitudes have these features in common: they do not result from rational examination of the issues; they are not governed by logic; and they are often linked to people’s values.
3. Behaviorally Based Attitudes
• Behaviorally based attitudes are based on self-perception of one’s own behavior when the initial attitude is weak or ambiguous.
• According to Bem’s (1972) self-perception theory, under certain conditions people don’t know how they feel until they see how they behave.
Attitude Change Theory
I. ELM Model
There are two ways we make decisions and hence get persuaded:
When we are motivated and able to pay attention, we take a logical, conscious thinking, central route to decision-making. This can lead to permanent change in our attitude as we adopt and elaborate upon the speaker’s arguments.
In other cases, we take the peripheral route. Here we do not pay attention to persuasive arguments but are swayed instead by surface characteristics such as whether we like the speaker. In this case although we do change, it is only temporary (although it is to a state where we may be susceptible to further change).
One of the best ways motivating people to take the central route is to make the message personally relevant to them. Fear can also be effective in making them pay attention, but only if it is moderate and a solution is also offered. Strong fear will just lead to fight-or-flight reactions. The central route leads to consideration of both arguments for and against and a choice is carefully considered.
People are more motivated to use the central route when the issue has personal relevance to them. Some people have a higher need for cognition, deliberately thinking about more things than people with a lower need. These people with a higher need for cognition are more likely to choose the central route.
When they are feeling good, they will want to sustain this and will avoid focusing on things that might bring them down again, so they take a more cursory, peripheral route. People in a negative or neutral mood are more likely to take the central route.
Whether through central or peripheral route change in attitude depends upon
a) The Motivation to Pay Attention to the Arguments
• The personal relevance of a message influences motivation; thus, when a message is relevant, the amount of persuasion depends on argument quality.
• People’s motivation to listen carefully to message content may also depend on their level of need for cognition, the extent to which they seek out and think about information in their social worlds.
b) The Ability to Pay Attention to the Arguments
• People’s ability to attend to message content may be influenced by outside distracters or by the complexity of the message.
II. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• Attitudes may change due to the cognitive dissonance resulting from behavior that appears to have insufficient internal justification; changing the attitude to correspond with the behavior provides an internal justification.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory, developed by Leon Festinger (1957), is concerned with the relationships among cognitions. According to cognitive dissonance theory, there is a tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their cognitions (i.e., beliefs, opinions). When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance. In the case of a discrepancy between attitudes and behavior, it is most likely that the attitude will change to accommodate the behavior.
Two factors affect the strength of the dissonance: the number of dissonant beliefs, and the importance attached to each belief. There are three ways to eliminate dissonance: (1) reduce the importance of the dissonant beliefs, (2) add more consonant beliefs that outweigh the dissonant beliefs, or (3) change the dissonant beliefs so that they are no longer inconsistent.
Dissonance occurs most often in situations where an individual must choose between two incompatible beliefs or actions. The greatest dissonance is created when the two alternatives are equally attractive. Furthermore, attitude change is more likely in the direction of less incentive since this results in lower dissonance. In this respect, dissonance theory is contradictory to most behavioral theories which would predict greater attitude change with increased incentive (i.e., reinforcement).
III. Yale Theory
This model is important to understanding the process of persuasion. Most of the research conducted under the Yale approach can be organized into three major headings: speaker/source, message and audience.
Speaker/SourceThe source, or the person (or group) who is presenting a message, can influence its persuasiveness. This concept is frequently referred to as “speaker credibility,” although of course it applies to the credibility of writers as well. Researchers who employed the Yale approach might not have extended their ideas to television or movies, but we can consider producers, directors, and actors/actresses to be kinds of sources. Although sources have a variety of characteristics that have been studied (for example, attractiveness and similarity), the two most important aspects of sources in the Yale research are expertise and trustworthiness. It makes sense that we should be more likely to accept (be persuaded by) the words of experts than of those who are clueless. Similarly, if we do not trust the source of a message, we almost certainly will not be persuaded by that person. The research evidence shows that expert sources are usually more persuasive than non-experts, and that trustworthy sources are more likely to change an audience’s attitudes than untrustworthy persuaders. Messages with expert and/or trustworthy sources might influence several steps of the process of persuasion. For example, we might pay more attention to experts or those whom we trust, or we might ignore those whom we do not trust or who we feel are uninformed. We might be more likely to retain ideas from a reputable source than a disreputable source. However, expertise and trustworthiness probably help most with yielding: We are more likely to accept a message when we respect and trust the source -- and we are unlikely to yield to a message when we don’t respect or trust the source.It is important to realize that what matters the most in credibility is the audience’s perceptions of the source. That is, the most important factor in persuasion is not whether the speaker really is an expert or trustworthy, but whether the audience thinks the source is an expert or trustworthy. If the audience thinks the source is an expert and/or trustworthy, it is more likely that the audience will be persuaded by that source. On the other hand, if the audience believes that the source knows nothing about the topic or can’t be trusted, it is unlikely that the audience will be persuaded by messages from that source. Of course, if a persuader really is an expert (or really is trustworthy), it should be easy to convince the audience that they should defer to that source.
MessageMessages can be divided into two basic parts: organization and content. Message Organization-The most basic question one can ask about organization is whether it matters: Are organized speeches more persuasive than disorganized ones? The research evidence on this topic is pretty clear. Except for simple and short discourses, organized messages are more persuasive than disorganized ones. It should be obvious that organization would probably help comprehension, but it might also help with attention: Receivers might stop paying attention to a message that was disorganized and difficult to follow. However, investigations of organization did not stop here. Research, like most textbooks on persuasive speeches, has broken persuasive messages into three parts: introduction, main body, and conclusion.Research on the introduction tends to focus on whether the persuader should tell his or her audience that the message is trying to change their minds. This kind of forewarning of persuasive intent can take two forms. First, an introduction can inform or warn the audience that “I am going to try to change your mind about what you should do after graduating from high school” without giving any specifics. This is called forewarning of persuasive intent. An introduction can also warn auditors of the topic or position of the persuasive message: “I am going to try to persuade you that you should go to a trade school rather than college.” Research has found that either type of forewarning can reduce the persuasiveness of a message, presumably because it places audience members “on guard,” reducing their susceptibility to persuasion. People often have a tendency to think that their own beliefs and attitudes are right, so they may be more closed-minded when they know someone is trying to change their minds. While it is unwise to try misleading the audience about the purpose of a persuasive message, it might be better simply not to mention their purpose in the introduction. It seems likely that messages that forewarn the audience are less persuasive (than messages without warnings) because the warning interferes with yielding. However, if the listener knows the speech will promote an unpopular opinion, the audience may ignore the message (attention).The second (and largest) part of a persuasive message is the main body. Research on this aspect of organization has studied one-sided versus two-sided messages. But these terms “one-sided” and “two-sided” can be misleading. A “two-sided” speech is not a “pro/con” speech that presents arguments in favor of one side and then gives arguments on the other side, allowing the audience to make up their own minds which side to accept. A two-sided approach mentions (briefly) opposing viewpoints and then refutes or attacks them, and also presents arguments supporting its own viewpoint. A “one-sided” speech, in contrast, just gives arguments for its point of view advocated in the message without even acknowledging that some people disagree with that view.
The research suggests that as long as the two-sided message actually refutes the opposition (some weak “two-sided” messages in these studies mentioned the opposition but didn’t refute or attack the other side), two-sided messages are more persuasive than one-sided messages. Most persuasion occurs on controversial topics, where the audience may have already heard the other side -- or they may hear the other side soon. Refuting arguments from the opposition can weaken that position, making your side more persuasive. Two-sided messages may answer objections that might have kept the audience from agreeing with the message. Thus, one-sided messages may not create as much yielding as two-sided ones.The final part of organization is a conclusion. Here the primary question is, should a persuader make his or her conclusions explicit, so there is no question that the audience will get the point? Or should a persuader leave the conclusion implicit, hoping that audience members will figure it out for themselves -- and then will be more persuaded because they figured it out for themselves rather than by being told the conclusion by the persuader? In general, it is better to make conclusions more explicit. The effects of explicit conclusions are not huge, but they are fairly consistent. Only if the persuader’s position is already well-known to the audience is there an advantage to keeping the conclusion implicit. Explicit conclusions probably help most with comprehension of the message and perhaps with retention as well.Another topic that is often grouped with organization is primacy versus recency. I already mentioned the fact that most persuasion occurs on controversial topics, which means that your audience might already have heard a different (opposing) persuasive message on your topic. They might also hear an opposing viewpoint after your message. Sometimes you have no control over the order in which your audience hears these messages. But what if you can chose when they will hear or see your message? Primacy versus recency addresses the question of whether it is better to go first (primacy) or last (recency) in a series of persuasive messages.Audience – Individual or group who require changing the attitude. And are influenced by their intelligence, distraction, self-esteem and age.

Student of Rai Business School-New Delhi

Sanjeev Kumar Singh